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Weapons of Mass Destruction

General

The term “nuclear, bacteriological, chemical weapons” (NBC) and “weapons of mass destruction” (WMD) can be used interchangeably. The use of the WMD can have an enormous impact on the conduct of all operations. In general an explosion is the very rapid release of a large amount of energy in short interval of time within a limited space. The liberation of this energy is accompanied by a considerable increase of temperature, so that the products of the explosion become extremely hot gases. They move outward with great force pushing away the surrounding medium - air, water, or earth. The term “blast wave” is used for the effect in the air because it resembles a very strong wind. In water or under ground the effect is referred to as “shock wave” because it is like a sudden impact. The atomic or nuclear bomb (A-bomb) is similar to the more conventional or high explosive type of bomb in destructive action. However, in a nuclear explosion a fairly large proportion of the energy is emitted in the form of light and heat, generally referred to as “thermal radiation”. The very high temperatures attained in a nuclear explosion result in the formation of a fireball. The thermal radiation falling on exposed skin can cause what are called flash burns. An exploding nuclear bomb releases penetrating nuclear radiation. The highly penetrating and harmful invisible rays are called “prompt nuclear radiation”. The prompt radiation consists of an instantaneous burst of neutrons and gamma rays, which travel over an area of several square miles. Gamma rays are identical in effect to X-rays. The residual nuclear radiation, generally known as fallout, can be a hazard over very large areas that are completely free from other effects of a nuclear explosion. Two distinct categories of fallout, namely, early and delayed, are known. If a nuclear explosion occurs near the surface, earth or water is taken up into a mushroom-shaped cloud and becomes contaminated with the radioactive weapon residues. In high-altitude nuclear bursts a bomb is exploded well above the ground, the radioactive residues rise to a great height in the mushroom cloud and descend gradually over a large area.

In A-bombs the source of energy is the fusion process, in which nuclei of the isotopes of hydrogen combine to form a heavier helium nucleus. Furthermore, the physical size of a nuclear bomb drastically reduces, permitting the development of nuclear artillery shells and small missiles that can be fired from portable launchers in the field. Large rockets can carry multiple warheads for delivery to separate targets.

The Chain Reaction

When uranium or other suitable nucleus splits, it breaks up into a pair of nuclear fragments and releases energy. At the same time, the nucleus emits very quickly a number of fast neutrons, the same type of particle that initiated the fission of the uranium nucleus. This makes the neutrons possible to achieve a self-sustaining series of nuclear fissions and produce a chain reaction – continuous release of energy. The minimum amount of fissile material required to maintain the chain reaction is known as the critical mass. The successive generation of fission produces a supercritical assembly, which leads to a possible explosion. A heavy material, called a tamper, surrounds the fissile mass and prevents its premature disruption.

Detonation of Atomic Bombs

For destructive purposes four types of burst are distinguished – airburst, high-altitude explosion, surface burst and subsurface burst. The simplest system to detonate the atomic bomb is the gun-type weapon. A projectile made of fissile material is fired at a target of the same material so that the two weld together into a supercritical assembly. The outer part of the sphere consists of shaped high explosive and designed to concentrate the blast toward the center of the bomb. Each segment of the high explosive is equipped with a detonator, which in turn is wired to all other segments. The atomic bomb exploded by the United States over Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945, was a gun-type weapon. A more complex method, known as implosion, is used in a spherically shaped weapon. The extremely fast release of a very large amount of energy in a relatively small volume causes the temperature to rise to tens of millions of degrees. The resulting rapid expansion and vaporization of the bomb material causes a powerful explosion. Nuclear weapons could use the energy liberated in the fusion of light elements. Fusion reactions occur only at temperatures of several millions of degrees. Such reactions consequently are known as heat-induced reactions. The term “thermonuclear” implies that the nuclei have a range (or distribution) of energies characteristic of the temperature. Atomic scientists regarded the A-bomb as the trigger of the projected thermonuclear device.

NBC Defense

When weapons of mass destruction are used, extensive destruction and mass casualties can result. Only cohesive, disciplined, physically fit, and well trained units can function in this environment. Long-term operations in this environment will degrade even best individual and unit performance as a result of wearing protective equipment. To fight and win under NBC conditions requires an application of the three fundamentals of NBC defense – contamination avoidance, protection, and decontamination. In NBC environment, battle command becomes more difficult. Control will be difficult even within the smallest unit. Consequently, commanders must never assume that they are immune to attack but consider ways of decreasing their risk. NBC protection is divided into three broad areas – force, collective, and individual protection.

Force protection involves actions taken by a commander to reduce the vulnerability of his force to an NBC attack. Force protection includes training, dispersion of force, actions to maintain the health and morale of soldiers and proper use of terrain for shielding against effects. Decisions concerning alarm placement and automatic masking criteria will be required as a part of the analysis. Forces above battalion level will conduct a process called vulnerability assessment and risk reduction.

Collective protection addresses the use of shelters to provide a contamination-free environment. It is protection provided to a group of individuals that permits relaxation of individual NBC protection.

Individual protection involves those actions taken by individual soldiers to survive and continue the mission under NBC conditions. It also addresses protection provided to an individual in an NBC environment by protective clothing and/or personal equipment.

The main NBC defense is decontamination. It is the reduction of the contamination hazard by removal or neutralization of hazardous levels of NBC contamination on personnel and materiel. Defensive measures alone are not an effective response to enemy NBC attacks.

Individual Protective Equipment

Personnel in protective clothing will be slow to respond to rapid changes in mission. NBC protective posture consists of the overgarment, mask, hood, overboots, protective gloves, individual decontamination kits, detection equipment, and antidotes. For the detection of atomic threat troops are issued radiac instruments which include survey meters and dosimeters. Radiacs are designed to detect alpha, beta, gamma and neutron radiation. They are essential to measure the intensity and extent of contamination and to protect personnel by determining the radiation dose they receive.

Protective Ensemble

Various methods of decontamination allow units to lessen the adverse impact of an NBC attack. They include hasty and deliberate decontamination. Various armies of the world use different types of chemical protective clothing for individual protection. Several types are available in the US Army. The type depends on the protection required, but all fall within two major divisions: permeable and impermeable. Permeable clothing allows air and moisture to pass through the fabric. Impermeable clothing does not. An example of impermeable clothing is the special butyl rubber suits worn by some explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) personnel and decon soldiers. Most troops use battledress overgarments (BDOs). This suit is a camouflage colored, woodland or desert, expendable two-piece overgarment consisting of one coat and one pair of trousers. The jacket and trousers have a zipped front and zipped legs. Due to heavy impregnation of charcoal, some charcoal may be deposited on skin and clothing under the BDO. The BDO provides protection against chemical agent vapors, liquid droplets; biological agents; toxins; and radioactive alpha and beta particles. The BDO is water resistant, but not water proof, water repellent and is normally worn as an outer garment. The BDO is normally worn over the duty uniform; however, in high temperatures it may be worn over underwear. Its protective qualities may last for a minimum of 30 days. Donning of the BDO provides a minimum of 24 hours of protection against exposure to liquid or vapor chemical agent.